Renewable Energy

It has been found that any periodic (repeating), the non-sinusoidal waveform can be produced by adding a series of sine waves at frequencies other than the fundamental. The fundamental frequency of a waveform is also called the first harmonic. AC voltage and current waveforms consist of frequencies, called harmonics that …

In many cases, renewable energy sources have DC outputs. The outputs of PV cells, fuel cells, some wind turbine generators, and other renewable energy devices are DC, but most of the world uses AC power. Therefore, DC power sources use an inverter to change DC to AC. Early inverters were …

Most electrical sources deliver energy almost immediately upon production. Batteries are an exception; they store electrical energy and deliver power to a load on demand. Batteries are electrochemical sources and use a chemical process to generate DC electricity. Batteries supply power to the load and are then recharged to repeat …

The following steps can be used to estimate the size of a battery bank for a stand-alone PV system (and other systems). 1. Calculate the average daily AC load at Wh per day (this is done before the battery bank sizing by using utility electric bills or adding the watts …

Many solar systems are designed to track, or follow, the sun’s movement across the sky. Tracking devices are categorized by the number of axes (either single-axis or dual-axis) that turn. Both types can follow the daily east-west motion of the sun, but only dual-axis trackers can track the seasonal north-south …

Energy Storage Systems (ESSs) are evolving as a viable technical and economical solution for improving both short-term and long-term grid operations. Increased peak power demand, limited generation capacity, the variability of renewable energy generation, and transmission and distribution issues can be addressed, in principle, with ESSs.  Different types of ESSs …

The focus in this section is on battery management systems (BMS) and includes topics related to the SOC, SOH, and state of life (SOL). An Energy Storage Management System (ESMS) is typically employed in order to ensure optimal and safe operation of devices, such as batteries and ultracapacitors. A typical …

In this section, the properties and control characteristic curve of the fuel cells are examined for designing the overall power conversion system to obtain the required voltage and power output for various applications. Fuel Cell Losses Several sources contribute to irreversible losses in a practical fuel cell. The losses, which …

Fuel cells are modular, environmentally clean, sustainable, efficient, and of a versatile technology. Fuel cell systems have been demonstrated for clean energy, transportation, and various other applications. Fuel Cell Definition A fuel cell is a device that generates electricity through a chemical reaction. It has two electrodes, an anode, and …

Wind turbines are categorized based on the orientation of their spin axis into horizontal-axis wind turbines (HAWT) and vertical-axis wind turbines (VAWT). VAWT have their rotor shaft transverse to the wind (but not necessarily vertical), and the main components are located at the base of the turbine; that is, the …

Photovoltaic (PV) System installations constitute a long-term and relatively expensive investment. Therefore, it is essential that an exact design of a certain residential PV installation is carried out. Figure 1 presents a simple flowchart for the design procedure of residential PV systems. In order to be able to design a …

The task of designing Photovoltaic (PV) systems is a very tricky process due to the fact that PV panels are still relatively expensive and energy production is very sensitive to atmospheric conditions and the physical location. In the case of ground-mounted PV systems, one can choose the optimum tilt angle …

PV cell characterization involves measuring the cell’s electrical performance characteristics to determine conversion efficiency and critical parameters. The conversion efficiency is a measure of how much incident light energy is converted into electrical energy. The optimum operating point for maximum output power is also a critical parameter, as is a …

The key feature of conventional Photovoltaic PV (solar) cells is the PN junction. In the PN junction solar cell, sunlight provides sufficient energy to the free electrons in the n region to allow them to cross the depletion region and combine with holes in the p region. This energy creates …

These questions are primarily related to Capacitance, Electric Current, Resistors in Series and Parallel. These topics are covered in detail here: Capacitance Electric Current Series and Parallel Circuit   Determine the voltage when 500 J of energy is used to move 10 C of charge.           …

These questions are related to Type of Fuels, Solar Energy, Wind Energy, and Nuclear Energy that are covered in detail here: How Does Nuclear Energy Work All about Solar Energy | Solar Energy Environmental Impact Global Wind Patterns | Environmental Impact of Wind Energy Types of Fossil Fuels What are …

Fuses and circuit breakers are placed in the current path of an electric circuit. They are used to create an open (break in the circuit) when the current exceeds a specified number of amperes due to a malfunction or other abnormal condition. The basic difference between a fuse and circuit …

To test and troubleshoot circuits, it is necessary to understand how to use basic electronic measuring instruments. The digital multimeter (DMM) is the most widely used electronic measuring instrument. Also, the clamp-type ammeter is useful for measuring current, especially in power applications. An older analog meter called the volt-ohm-milliammeter (VOM) …

A resistor presents a fixed value of resistance (opposition to current) that is independent of the type of voltage (dc or ac) applied to it. Capacitors and inductors are two types of electrical components classified as reactive, which means that their opposition to current depends on the type of voltage …

Magnetism and Electromagnetic Devices In this section, you will learn about basic magnetism and electromagnetism. Three important electromagnetic devices are introduced: the relay, the generator, and the motor. All of these devices are important in renewable energy systems. Relays are commonly used in many applications to switch current on and …